Educational Glossary

Explore key terms and concepts in Mathematics, Physics & Chemistry

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A

Algebra
Mathematics
A branch of mathematics dealing with symbols and the rules for manipulating those symbols to solve equations and represent relationships between quantities.
Example: In the equation 2x + 5 = 15, algebra helps us find that x = 5.
Acceleration
Physics
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time. It is a vector quantity measured in meters per second squared (m/s²).
Example: A car increasing its speed from 0 to 60 km/h in 10 seconds has an acceleration.
Acid
Chemistry
A substance that donates hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution and has a pH less than 7. Acids taste sour and turn blue litmus paper red.
Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), and citric acid found in lemons.
Atom
Chemistry
The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It consists of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons.
Example: A hydrogen atom has 1 proton and 1 electron.
Area
Mathematics
The measure of the surface enclosed by a closed figure, expressed in square units.
Example: The area of a rectangle = length × width. A rectangle with length 5 cm and width 3 cm has an area of 15 cm².

B

Base
Chemistry
A substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) or donates hydroxide ions (OH-) in a solution and has a pH greater than 7. Bases taste bitter and feel slippery.
Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), and ammonia (NH₃).
Binomial
Mathematics
An algebraic expression containing two terms connected by a plus or minus sign.
Example: 3x + 5, a² - b², and 2y - 7 are all binomials.
Buoyancy
Physics
The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object immersed in it. This force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Example: Ships float on water due to buoyant force, even though they're made of heavy steel.

C

Catalyst
Chemistry
A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the process. It lowers the activation energy required for the reaction.
Example: Platinum is used as a catalyst in catalytic converters in cars.
Circumference
Mathematics
The distance around a circle. Calculated using the formula C = 2πr, where r is the radius.
Example: A circle with radius 7 cm has a circumference of 2 × π × 7 = 44 cm (approximately).
Convection
Physics
Heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). Warmer, less dense fluid rises while cooler, denser fluid sinks.
Example: Boiling water demonstrates convection as hot water rises and cooler water sinks.
Covalent Bond
Chemistry
A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. Common in non-metal compounds.
Example: Water (H₂O) has covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

D

Derivative
Mathematics
A measure of how a function changes as its input changes. It represents the rate of change or slope of a function at any point.
Example: The derivative of f(x) = x² is f'(x) = 2x.
Density
Physics
Mass per unit volume of a substance, calculated as ρ = m/V. Measured in kg/m³ or g/cm³.
Example: Water has a density of 1 g/cm³, while iron has a density of 7.87 g/cm³.
Distillation
Chemistry
A separation technique that uses differences in boiling points to separate components of a liquid mixture.
Example: Distillation is used to purify water and separate alcohol from fermented liquids.

E

Energy
Physics
The capacity to do work or produce heat. It exists in various forms including kinetic, potential, thermal, electrical, and chemical energy.
Example: A moving car has kinetic energy, while a stretched spring has potential energy.
Electrolysis
Chemistry
The process of using electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction, typically decomposing a compound.
Example: Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen gases.
Equation
Mathematics
A mathematical statement that two expressions are equal, connected by an equals sign (=).
Example: 3x + 5 = 14 is an equation where x = 3.

F

Force
Physics
A push or pull on an object resulting from its interaction with another object. Measured in Newtons (N). Formula: F = ma (mass × acceleration).
Example: Pushing a door, gravity pulling objects down, friction opposing motion.
Fraction
Mathematics
A numerical quantity representing part of a whole, expressed as a ratio of two integers (numerator/denominator).
Example: 3/4, 1/2, 5/8. In 3/4, 3 is the numerator and 4 is the denominator.
Friction
Physics
The force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of such motion between two surfaces in contact.
Example: Rubbing hands together generates heat due to friction; brakes work by friction.
Filtration
Chemistry
A separation technique used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter medium that allows only the fluid to pass through.
Example: Using filter paper to separate sand from water.

G

Gravity
Physics
The force of attraction between any two objects with mass. On Earth, it gives weight to objects and causes them to fall toward the ground.
Example: Acceleration due to gravity on Earth is approximately 9.8 m/s².
Geometry
Mathematics
A branch of mathematics concerned with properties and relations of points, lines, surfaces, and solids.
Example: Studying triangles, circles, angles, and three-dimensional shapes.
Group (Periodic Table)
Chemistry
A vertical column in the periodic table. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and the same number of valence electrons.
Example: Group 1 contains alkali metals (Li, Na, K), all highly reactive with water.

H

Hypotenuse
Mathematics
The longest side of a right-angled triangle, opposite to the right angle. Related by Pythagorean theorem: a² + b² = c².
Example: In a triangle with sides 3, 4, and 5, the hypotenuse is 5.
Hydrocarbon
Chemistry
An organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They form the basis of petroleum and natural gas.
Example: Methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), benzene (C₆H₆).
Heat
Physics
Energy transferred between objects or systems due to a temperature difference. Flows from higher to lower temperature.
Example: A hot cup of coffee transfers heat to the surrounding air, cooling down.

I

Ion
Chemistry
An atom or molecule that has gained or lost electrons, giving it a positive (cation) or negative (anion) electrical charge.
Example: Na⁺ (sodium cation), Cl⁻ (chloride anion).
Isotope
Chemistry
Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses.
Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon.
Integer
Mathematics
A whole number that can be positive, negative, or zero, without fractions or decimals.
Example: ..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Inertia
Physics
The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion. An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an external force.
Example: Passengers jerk forward when a moving bus suddenly stops.

K

Kinetic Energy
Physics
The energy possessed by an object due to its motion. Formula: KE = ½mv², where m is mass and v is velocity.
Example: A moving car, flowing water, or a rolling ball all have kinetic energy.
Kinetic Theory
Chemistry
A theory explaining the behavior of matter in terms of the motion of its particles (atoms and molecules).
Example: Gas particles move randomly and collide with container walls, creating pressure.

L

Light
Physics
Electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye. Travels at approximately 3 × 10⁸ m/s in vacuum.
Example: Sunlight, LED bulbs, and laser beams are all sources of light.
Linear Equation
Mathematics
An equation where the highest power of the variable is 1. When graphed, it produces a straight line.
Example: y = 2x + 3 is a linear equation.
Litmus
Chemistry
A natural indicator obtained from lichens, used to test whether a solution is acidic or basic. Blue litmus turns red in acid; red litmus turns blue in base.
Example: Testing lemon juice (acid) with blue litmus paper turns it red.

M

Momentum
Physics
The product of an object's mass and velocity. Formula: p = mv. It is a vector quantity measured in kg⋅m/s.
Example: A heavy truck moving slowly can have the same momentum as a light car moving fast.
Molecule
Chemistry
The smallest particle of a substance that retains all the chemical properties of that substance, consisting of two or more atoms bonded together.
Example: H₂O (water molecule), O₂ (oxygen molecule), CO₂ (carbon dioxide molecule).
Mean
Mathematics
The average of a set of numbers, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the count of values.
Example: Mean of 2, 4, 6, 8 is (2+4+6+8)/4 = 5.
Median
Mathematics
The middle value in a sorted list of numbers. If there are two middle numbers, the median is their average.
Example: Median of 3, 7, 9, 11, 15 is 9.

N

Newton's Laws
Physics
Three fundamental laws describing the relationship between motion and forces: 1) Law of Inertia, 2) F=ma, 3) Action-Reaction.
Example: Third law: When you push a wall, the wall pushes back with equal force.
Neutralization
Chemistry
A chemical reaction between an acid and a base, producing salt and water. The pH moves toward 7 (neutral).
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O (hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → salt + water).
Natural Numbers
Mathematics
Positive integers starting from 1 and continuing infinitely: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
Example: Used for counting objects: 1 apple, 2 books, 3 chairs.

O

Oxidation
Chemistry
A chemical process involving the loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion. Often involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen.
Example: Rusting of iron (Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻).
Ohm's Law
Physics
The relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R): V = IR. Voltage is proportional to current.
Example: If V = 12V and R = 4Ω, then I = 3A.
Obtuse Angle
Mathematics
An angle measuring greater than 90° but less than 180°.
Example: 120°, 135°, 150° are all obtuse angles.

P

Potential Energy
Physics
Stored energy due to an object's position or condition. Formula: PE = mgh (gravitational potential energy).
Example: Water stored in a dam, a stretched rubber band, or a book on a shelf.
pH Scale
Chemistry
A scale measuring the acidity or basicity of a solution, ranging from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic), with 7 being neutral.
Example: Lemon juice has pH ~2, water has pH 7, soap has pH ~10.
Perimeter
Mathematics
The total distance around the boundary of a two-dimensional shape.
Example: Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(length + width).
Polynomial
Mathematics
An algebraic expression consisting of variables and coefficients, combined using addition, subtraction, and multiplication.
Example: 3x² + 2x - 5, x³ - 4x + 7 are polynomials.

Q

Quadratic Equation
Mathematics
An equation of the form ax² + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0. The highest power of the variable is 2.
Example: x² - 5x + 6 = 0 has solutions x = 2 and x = 3.
Quotient
Mathematics
The result of division. When dividing a by b, the quotient is the whole number part of the answer.
Example: 15 ÷ 4 = 3 remainder 3. The quotient is 3.

R

Reflection
Physics
The bouncing back of light, sound, or other waves from a surface. Follows the law: angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
Example: Seeing your image in a mirror is due to reflection of light.
Refraction
Physics
The bending of light (or other waves) when it passes from one medium to another with different density.
Example: A straw appears bent when placed in a glass of water.
Reduction
Chemistry
A chemical process involving the gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion. Often involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.
Example: Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu (copper ions gain electrons to form copper metal).
Ratio
Mathematics
A comparison of two quantities by division, showing how many times one value contains another.
Example: If there are 10 boys and 5 girls, the ratio is 10:5 or 2:1.

S

Solubility
Chemistry
The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature.
Example: Sugar is highly soluble in water; sand is not.
Speed
Physics
The rate at which an object covers distance. Formula: speed = distance/time. Measured in m/s or km/h.
Example: A car traveling 100 km in 2 hours has a speed of 50 km/h.
Statistics
Mathematics
The branch of mathematics dealing with collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data.
Example: Calculating mean, median, mode from test scores.
Sublimation
Chemistry
The process of transformation directly from solid to gas without passing through the liquid phase.
Example: Dry ice (solid CO₂) sublimes directly to gas, camphor and naphthalene also sublime.

T

Temperature
Physics
A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance. Measured in Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), or Kelvin (K).
Example: Water freezes at 0°C (32°F, 273K) and boils at 100°C (212°F, 373K).
Theorem
Mathematics
A mathematical statement that has been proved based on previously established statements and axioms.
Example: Pythagoras theorem: In a right triangle, a² + b² = c².
Titration
Chemistry
A laboratory technique used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution by reacting it with a solution of known concentration.
Example: Using NaOH of known concentration to find the concentration of HCl.
Trigonometry
Mathematics
The branch of mathematics dealing with relationships between sides and angles of triangles.
Example: sin θ, cos θ, tan θ are trigonometric ratios.

U

Uniform Motion
Physics
Motion in which an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, maintaining constant velocity.
Example: A car moving at steady 60 km/h on a highway demonstrates uniform motion.
Universal Indicator
Chemistry
A mixture of indicators that shows different colors at different pH values, allowing precise determination of pH levels from 0-14.
Example: Red (pH 1-4 acidic), yellow-green (pH 7 neutral), blue-purple (pH 10-14 basic).
Union
Mathematics
In set theory, the union of two sets contains all elements from both sets, denoted by ∪.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

V

Velocity
Physics
The rate of change of displacement with time. It is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction. Measured in m/s.
Example: A car moving at 50 km/h north has velocity of 50 km/h in the north direction.
Volume
Mathematics
The amount of three-dimensional space occupied by an object or enclosed within a container, measured in cubic units.
Example: Volume of a cube = side³. A cube with side 3 cm has volume 27 cm³.
Valency
Chemistry
The combining capacity of an element, determined by the number of electrons it can lose, gain, or share to achieve a stable configuration.
Example: Hydrogen has valency 1, oxygen has valency 2, nitrogen has valency 3, carbon has valency 4.
Vacuum
Physics
A space entirely devoid of matter, or a region with extremely low pressure where very few particles exist.
Example: Outer space is nearly a perfect vacuum; light travels fastest in vacuum.
Variable
Mathematics
A symbol (usually a letter) that represents an unknown or changing quantity in mathematical expressions or equations.
Example: In the equation y = 2x + 3, both x and y are variables.

W

Work
Physics
The product of force applied on an object and the distance moved in the direction of force. Formula: W = F × d. Measured in Joules (J).
Example: Pushing a box 5 meters with 10 N force does 50 J of work.
Wave
Physics
A disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space without transferring matter itself. Can be transverse or longitudinal.
Example: Light waves, sound waves, water waves, electromagnetic waves.
Wavelength
Physics
The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs in a wave. Denoted by λ (lambda), measured in meters.
Example: Visible light has wavelengths from 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red).
Whole Numbers
Mathematics
The set of non-negative integers including zero: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
Example: 0, 15, 100, 1000 are whole numbers; -5 and 3.5 are not.

X

X-axis
Mathematics
The horizontal axis in a coordinate system, typically used to represent the independent variable.
Example: In a graph showing distance vs. time, time is usually plotted on the x-axis.
X-rays
Physics
High-energy electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than UV light, capable of penetrating many materials.
Example: Used in medical imaging to view bones and internal organs.

Y

Y-axis
Mathematics
The vertical axis in a coordinate system, typically used to represent the dependent variable.
Example: In a graph showing distance vs. time, distance is usually plotted on the y-axis.
Y-intercept
Mathematics
The point where a line or curve crosses the y-axis. The x-coordinate is always zero at this point.
Example: In the equation y = 2x + 3, the y-intercept is 3 (point 0, 3).

Z

Zero
Mathematics
The integer denoted by 0, representing the absence of quantity. It is neither positive nor negative.
Example: 5 - 5 = 0; any number multiplied by zero equals zero.
Zero Gravity
Physics
A state of weightlessness where there is no apparent force of gravity acting on an object, typically experienced in free fall or space.
Example: Astronauts in the International Space Station experience zero gravity.
Z-axis
Mathematics
The third axis in a three-dimensional coordinate system, perpendicular to both x-axis and y-axis, representing depth.
Example: Used in 3D graphing to represent height or depth along with length and width.

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